On the eve of May 9, Russia marks Victory Day, commemorating the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II — a celebration often framed as a triumph of the Soviet Union. Yet, in the early years of the war, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) suffered devastating setbacks and unprecedented losses.
It was only later, with critical military and economic support from the United States and Great Britain through the Lend-Lease program, that the Soviet Union avoided likely defeat. This external assistance played a pivotal role in turning the tide of the war in Moscow’s favor. This article explores the condition of the Soviet army on the brink of war with Germany, outlines the scope of the Lend-Lease program, and examines its true influence on the outcome of World War II.
A Stab in the Back
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in August 1939, enabled Hitler to launch his campaign of conquest across Europe. By May 1940, German forces pushed westward, capturing France in just six weeks.
However, the so-called friendship between Berlin and Moscow was short-lived. Hitler had long harbored ambitions to expand eastward, seeking Lebensraum — "living space" — for the German people.
On December 18, 1940, Hitler issued Führer Directive 21, which formally authorized the planning of Operation Barbarossa — the codename for the invasion of the Soviet Union. The operation was named after Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, a powerful medieval ruler.
According to the plan, German troops would advance along a vast front stretching from the port of Arkhangelsk in the north to Astrakhan on the Caspian Sea in the south — a line that came to be known as the “A–A Line.” The goal was to bring a large portion of the Soviet population and its economic resources under Nazi control.
However, the launch of the German invasion of the Soviet Union was delayed by five weeks due to military operations in Greece and Yugoslavia.
At last, on June 22, 1941, Operation Barbarossa began — the largest military offensive in history. More than 3.5mn German and Axis troops advanced into Soviet territory along a front stretching 1,800 miles (approximately 2,900 kilometers).
The scale of the operation was unprecedented. A total of 148 divisions — roughly 80% of the entire German army — took part in the assault. Among them were 17 panzer (armored) divisions, grouped into four panzer armies leading the offensive. These units fielded around 3,400 tanks. The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) supported the invasion with approximately 2,700 aircraft, aiming to achieve rapid air superiority.
The State of the Soviet Army
When Germany launched Operation Barbarossa on June 22, 1941, the Soviet Red Army, despite having a numerical advantage, suffered catastrophic losses in the opening weeks of the invasion.
A key reason for this was the severe shortage of trained military specialists and the outdated condition of much of the army’s equipment. In 1937–1938, Stalin had carried out a sweeping purge of the Red Army’s leadership. Hundreds of experienced generals and officers were executed or sent to labor camps, leaving a command structure riddled with inexperience and fear.
Although the Red Army possessed a vast number of tanks — approximately 23,000 — most were obsolete models like the T-26 and BT-7. The newer and more powerful T-34 and KV-1 tanks were effective but were deployed in small, scattered units that failed to deliver a coordinated defense.
Additionally, the Soviet military’s logistics and supply chains were poorly organized. Fuel shortages, particularly of petroleum products and lubricants, further hampered the army’s mobility and combat readiness.
A vivid example of the Red Army’s logistical challenges was the severe fuel shortage it faced. Prior to the war, 33 Soviet tank divisions were already running at more than 90% below their fuel needs.
These critical shortcomings forced the Soviet Union to retreat under immense pressure, suffering devastating losses. By December 1941, reports indicated that the Red Army had sustained casualties exceeding 4mn, a staggering toll on both personnel and morale.
The Aid That Saved the Alliance
On March 11, 1941, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease Act, a program designed to provide military and economic assistance to nations fighting against Nazi Germany.
Under this act, countries engaged in the war against Germany were able to receive vital aid from the United States on preferential terms. The Soviet Union began to utilize this program in October 1941, a crucial turning point for the Red Army.
The forms of Lend-Lease aid included:
- Military equipment such as tanks, aircraft, and vehicles
- Railway equipment and other transport vehicles
- Food and clothing for troops
- Fuel and raw materials
- Chemicals and explosives
Importantly, the aid was not provided as a straightforward financial transaction. Instead, it was extended on a "lend-lease" basis, meaning that it was expected to be returned or compensated for after the war.
Over the course of the program, the Soviet Union received a total of $11.3bn in aid — equivalent to approximately $180bn today. However, more than 90% of this assistance was never repaid by the Soviet Union after the war’s end.
According to sources from the U.S. National Archives and the U.S. Office of War Information, the United States provided substantial aid to the Soviet Union during World War II. Some of the contributions included:
- Over 400,000 trucks, the most famous being the Studebaker US6
- More than 13,000 tanks, primarily M3 Lee and M4 Sherman models
- Over 22,000 aircraft, including the P-39 Airacobra
- More than 8,000 kilometers of railway tracks and over 2,000 locomotives
- 4.5mn tons of food
- 2mn tons of fuel
In addition to U.S. support, Great Britain also contributed significant assistance, providing military equipment, medical supplies, aircraft engines, and training for Soviet pilots.
The scale of this aid was staggering. Over more than four years, the combined volume of goods, food, and equipment sent from the U.S. and Britain amounted to over 50% of the total production of goods in the Soviet Union between 1941 and 1945.
One of the most iconic Soviet weapons of war, the Katyusha rocket launcher, was produced with technology provided by the United States. These launchers were mounted on trucks manufactured by the Studebaker Corporation, which was part of the Lend-Lease program.
The Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union relied on four main transportation routes, three of which were by sea.
The most vital route was the Pacific route, which transported over 8mn tons of cargo. Although it was relatively safe, the long distance made it a challenging and time-consuming pathway. The second most important route was the Trans-Iranian route, which moved 4.16mn tons of cargo to the Soviet Union.
The Impact of Lend-Lease Aid
In his book Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II, American historian Albert L. Weeks writes:
"Lend-Lease did not ensure the Soviet Union's victory in the war, but it significantly accelerated it."
Another historian, Mark Harrison from the University of Oxford, emphasizes that Western trucks and fuel were crucial in maintaining the logistics of the Soviet army during the conflict.
According to Harrison's analysis, by 1943, two-thirds of the logistical movements behind the front lines were facilitated by Lend-Lease transport equipment.
However, for many years, the importance of Lend-Lease assistance was downplayed in Soviet historical narratives. Soviet sources often emphasized that victory was achieved primarily through the heroism and resilience of the Soviet people, with little recognition of external support.
While the Soviet Union long portrayed Lend-Lease aid as a secondary factor, modern Russian historians acknowledge that without this assistance, the war would have been prolonged and resulted in far greater casualties.
For instance, historian Boris Sokolov, in his article The Role of Lend-Lease in Soviet Military Efforts, 1941–1945, states:
"Without the goods supplied from the West through the Lend-Lease program, the Soviet Union would not only have been unable to win the Great Patriotic War but would have struggled to resist the German invaders. The USSR would not have been able to produce sufficient weapons, military equipment, fuel, or ammunition on its own."
Even Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader from 1953 to 1964, acknowledged the vital role of Lend-Lease in his memoirs, writing:
"Stalin repeatedly said that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. Had we faced Germany alone, we would not have withstood the pressure and would have lost the war."
How the USSR Repayed the Debt
After World War II, the issue of settling Lend-Lease debts was discussed between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1945-1946. The U.S. initially proposed that the Soviet Union repay part of the Lend-Lease aid, amounting to $1.3bn (roughly $1bn). However, the USSR could only commit to paying $170mn, which was not accepted by the U.S.
After negotiations, the Soviet Union agreed to repay $722mn. This amount was to be paid in long-term installments with interest. The USSR made regular payments of about $48mn annually until 1973, but in 1979, Moscow halted payments due to the U.S.'s actions against the Soviet Union.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation, as the legal successor, inherited the debt. In 1993, the U.S. and Russia reached an agreement, and in 2006, Russia made the final payment under the Lend-Lease program.
Follow Daryo's official Instagram and Twitter pages to keep current on world news.
Comments (0)